12- The Abstract Truth

The Task

Thus Steve Reich, explaining to Edward Strickland in 1987 why he didn’t write European-style serial music, argued that his repetitive, low-affect music was true to the popular experience of postwar consumer America: “Stockhausen, Berio, and Boulez were portraying in very honest terms what it was like to pick up the pieces after World War II. But for some American in 1948 or 1958 or 1968 – in the real context of tailfins, Chuck Berry and millions of burgers sold – to pretend instead we’re really going to have the dark-brown Angst of Vienna is a lie, a musical lie.” (Fink 2005: 119)

For this week’s composition study the task is to write a short piece that reflects “in very honest terms” the experience of living in “the real context” of the Internet, terrorism, global warming, the credit crunch, rampant consumerism, or whatever. In other words, something that reflects the abstract truth about yourself and your relationship to the world you live in.

Submit:

1.       One composition.

2.       A short presentation with “mood board”.

Reference

Fink, R. (2005) Repeating Ourselves: American Minimal Music as Cultural Practice. California UP.

Research

The style used to reflect the personal opinion was that of experimental / Musique Concrete.
During WWII the Nazi's used tape machines to record propaganda and broadcast material edited by using a razor blade.  This was the source of the idea behind musique concrete for Pierre Schaeffer.  Schaeffer, whose studio (studio d'Essai) was part of RTF had the opportunity to experiment with this recording technology and manipulate sounds.  

The basis of musique concrete is that the composer uses sound samples (sound objects) and manipulates then in order to create a composition.  For more information on Musqiue Concrete, please see Week 5- Pencil and Paper.

Ben Burtt ( 12th July 1948- present) is an American Sound Designer.  He has produced the sound for many famous films including Star Wars, WALL- E, and E.T the Extra-Terrestrial. He uses a technique called "worldizing" which is a sound design concept by Walter Murch. The technique involves playing a sound through the object it is supposed to be coming from i.e. radio or TV.  This sound is then re-recorded and used for the sound design.


The Composition

The idea of the composition is to reflect the horrors and terrors of the world and then the good parts about the world through speech or music.  The basis for the composition is of a radio being tuned to find a specific channel or sound but always coming across the bad news.  Eventually the person controlling the radio finds the stations which is playing things to make them happy.  A mood board was completed in order to show the thought processes undertaken.  

To complete the composition, recordings were made through the speakers to a field recorder.  They were edited and arranged in Cubase along with some radio static.  These samples were then distorted in Cubase and had EQ applied to them. The track was mixed and bounced to a wav.




Critical Analysis

The composition refers to the brief closely by creating a piece "that reflects "in very honest terms" the experience of living in "the real context" of the internet, terrorism, global warming, the credit crunch".. etc.  It feels as though it is being played through the radio although with more time, worldizing the sounds might have worked better.

Recommended Reading

Dwyer, T. (1971) 'Musique Concrete for Beginners' from Composing with Tape Recorder's from http://monoskop.org/images/b/b3/Dwyer_Terence_Composing_with_Tape_Recorders_Musique_Concrete_for_Beginners.pdf  [27.05.14]

11- Brian Eno

The Task

Create a “systems” piece based on either or both of the two generative procedures we have looked at in class:

1.       Using a “time-lag accumulator” to create a texture of layered repeats.

2.       Use irregular loops to produce organically-developing soundscapes.

Things to consider:

·         If you’re going for something ambient-ish, a favourite Eno trick is to use a set of notes in a particular mode or scale but omit the root note. This allows for a feeling of suspension: it gets away from the sense of teleological closure whenever we resolve back to the tonic.

·         OR: use a mode or scale but have the lowest note the fifth rather than the tonic. Again: it tends to make the music less tonally “weighted”.

·         OR: use a mode or scale that has an ambiguous tonal centre.

·         Timbral modification: “When so much in the way of melody, rhythm, and harmony have been stripped away from the music, timbral subtleties loom structurally large” (Tamm 1995: 135).

Reference

Tamm, E. (1995) Brian Eno: His Music and the Vertical Color of Sound. Da Capo Press.

Research

Brian Eno (15th May 1948 - present) is a British composer and record producer and is best known as the pioneer of ambient music.  Eno was a member of Roxy Music as a synth player in the 1970's but left the band after conflicts with the singer Bryan Ferry.  Since then, Eno has experimented with musical styles and has been very influential within ambient and generative music.  He has produced records for many artists and bands including David Bowie, U2, Coldplay and James Blake.  

Generative music is the term that became popular from use by Eno to describe a type of music that is created by a system and is changing.  There are different ideas of generative music including music that has a certain process or system behind it, for example when the performer is given a score with numbers phrases and can arrange these section sin any way they wish, and music that has a system like a tape loop setup and the music can generated without human interaction. 

Techniques Eno uses for his ambient pieces include setting up a system and letting it run through and omitting the root note of the key form the piece in order to create suspense and tension.  Eno apparently received a phone call whilst composing one of his track and made this ambient music almost by coincidence; 

                  the phone started ringing, people started knocking at the door and I was answering                     the phone and adjusting all this stuff as it ran.  I almost made ["discreet Music"]                            without listening to it.  It was really automatic music... Since then I've expreimented a                    lot with procedures where I set something up and interferred as little as possible.                          (Tamm 1995)

Eno was named the 7th greatest producer ever. (NME 2014)

Ambient 1: Music for Airports was released in 1978 and is the first of four in the "Ambient" series.  This album utilises the tape loops and creates a phasing pattern (similar to Steve Reich Phasing Piano).  It's an ever-evolving process and uses pianos, synthesizers and vocals. This album featured a graphic score for each track. 





The Composition

The first thing done to create the piece was to decide on the key and build a melody. The melody was chosen based on the idea that the root note would be omitted and the 7th added in certain places in order to give an ambiguous tone. Once this was complete, it was sequenced into Cubase using the MIDI sequencer.  It was imported into Logic and sounds chosen from Massive.  These little melodies were bounced as individual files.  

The initial idea was to use Pure Data to complete the piece and so a patch was started to create this.  The individual files were put into PD.  The screen shot below shows the patch.  

The idea behind this is that when you hit the individual toggle, that specific sound file plays.  This signal mixes with the delay to get the delayed and dry (original) signal.  Both of these signals get routed to the output.  The writesf~2 allows for what is playing to be written from the output to the place you specify in the message above it.  Despite the simplicity of the patch, the composition didn't quite sound as desired and so it was disregarded and the piece completed in ProTools. 

The inidvidiual files (the ones which were put into the PD patch) were added to the new ProTools session and then bounced as and interleaved wav.  This track was then re-imported back into the audio track (only for ease of use).  The ins and outs were routed as seen in the screen shot below. 

Delay was setup and the distortion was added to give the piece a grungy dirty element.  The screenshot below shows the setting. 

The output was routed to a new audio track and was set to record.  While recording, the distortion and delay settings were moved in order to change the effects of the plugins. This was done without listening to the output in order to give the piece an element of chance. Once the recording was complete it was listened back and then bounced as a wav. 

Critical Analysis

The piece uses some of Eno's techniques in its creation such as the tonality technique and the tape loop technique.  It also uses his idea of an element of chance.  The piece works in terms of structure and the ambiguous tonality as it gives a sense of unknowing and tension.  the instrumentation mixes almost electronic sounds with more standard synth sounds and this gives the piece that extra sense of tension.  It also takes on board certain techniques from other composers including the minimalist approach of Reich and Glass. The structure of the piece works although there is little in the way of development; perhaps the delay time could have been longer in order to give a larger sense of duplication of the sound.


References

NME (2014) 'The 50 Greatest Producers Ever' from NME from http://www.nme.com/list/the-50-greatest-producers-ever/262849 [22.05.14]

Tamm, E. (1995) Brian Eno: His Music and the Vertical Color of Sound. Da Capo Press.

10- Philip Glass

The Task

Create a piece that has at least two distinct rhythmic streams:

1.       Fixed.

2.       Uses additive composition to produce polyrhythmic effects against (1).

3.       Try and work out a coherent harmonic scheme.

(1) and (2) effectively work in a figure-and-ground relationship.

Although each part will be monophonic, as they are layered up you will effectively be creating a harmonic "stack" that changes configuration as the additive elements kick in: Glass is very good at manipulating minimal melodic materials that produce carefully voiced chords working within a tight and coherent harmonic overall scheme.

Research

Philip Glass (31st January 1937 - present) is an American composer most well known for his work in the Minimalism genre.  He has attempted to distance himself from the minimalist label though instead describing himself as a composer of music with repetitive structures. (Glass, Biography)  He has written many pieces including operas, symphonies, concertos, chamber music and film scores.  Three of these film scores have been nominated for Academy Awards. 

Einstein on the Beach was first premiered on 25th July 1976 and is an opera in four parts.  The piece is around five hours in length without an intermission.  Looking specifically at Train, Part 1, you'll notice the relationship between the figure and ground.  Saxophones play a three note phrase and then the rest of the orchestra and chorus join in with their own additive phrases.  Additive phrases refers to when a performer has a certain phrase but the timing can change from bar to bar. The image below (from Music in Twelve Parts) shows this.

The timing changes form bar to bar giving an uneasy, restless feel.  The idea is to take a musical phrase, then one the next bar, add in 1 or 2 extra notes of the rhythm.  

                    Additive process involves the expansion and contraction of tiny musical modules: a                     five-note grouping, for example, played several times, then becoming six notes,                           then seven and so on. It's the same general melodic configuration but takes on a                           different rhythmic shape because of the addition or subtraction of a note. Rhythmic                      cycles involve the simultaneous repetition of two or more different rhythmic patterns                      which will eventually arrive back together at starting points, making one complete                          cycle. Glass reports that to some, it sounds like wheels within wheels (Delahoyde                        2013)








The Composition

The composition has a repeated note as it's ground line. The ground is in 8/8 and was sequenced in Cubase. This was exported from Cubase to Logic where the sounds were changed for sounds from Massive.  The next line utilises the additive process and each bar adds or subtracts a new note.  It was sequenced again in Cubase then imported into Logic for the sounds to be generated by Massive. The time signature for this line changes.  It begins with 7/8 then each bar is different. The time signatures for the bars have their own pattern- 7/8, 9/8, 11/8, 12/8, 15/8, 12/8, 11/8, 9/8, 7/8. 

Extras lines of music are added in order to give the piece more interest.  These lines are in a fixed time signature unlike the main changing riff. The extra lines were assigned instruments from Massive. The piece was arranged in Logic and then mixed and exported as a wav.






Critical Analysis

The composition takes the many of the main ideas from Glass especially that of the ground and figure pattern and the changing of time signatures (additive process). The composition has a well-shaped structure and makes use of the repetitive patterns in order to create a symmetrical form. The instruments compliment one another well.  The ground has a good rhythmical pattern and allows for the rest to be built upon it.  Despite this, the changing figure may have been more effective if there had been perhaps three bars of each time signature instead of one in order to make the changing patterns have more tension.


References

Delahoyde, M. (2013) 'Minimalism' from 20th Century Arts and Humanities from http://public.wsu.edu/~delahoyd/20th/index.html [14.5.14]

Week 9- Steve Reich Write Up

The Task

1.     Create a modal pattern using quavers in 12/8.

2.     Build up texture and harmony using canonic "phase shifting".

3.     Use substitution: rests for beats and vice versa.

4.     Try and experiment with dynamics to accentuate rhythmic interplay.

5.     Homophonic instrumental texture.

6.     Produce a 'B' section using another mode.

7.     No bass line or downbeat.

8.     Try and keep it under 5 minutes long.

Research

Steve Reich (3rd October 1936 - present), an American composer, pioneered the Minimalist music movement along with Terry Riley, Phillip Glass and La Monte Young.  He was recently described as one of

                    a handful of living composers who can legitimately claim to have altered the                                   direction of musical history (Radio 3 2010)

and also

                may...be considered, by general acclamation, America's greatest living composer                       (Gann 1999)

Reich was of Jewish heritage and used memories of train journeys between New York and Los Angeles during WWII as influences for his composition Different Trains.  It was whilst mulling over the memory years later that he realised that had he been in Europe instead of the USA, he might have been travelling in Holocaust trains.  This composition was a novel experiment as it used recorded speech as a source or melodies instead of the tape loop phase shifting he usually used. He won a Grammy Award for this composition as well as Music for 18 Musicians.  

In order to create his compositions, Reich used a variety of methods including the innovative phasing patterns using tape loops.  Piano Phase was written in 1967 and was the first attempt of applying the phasing technique.  The piece has two identical lines of music playing simultaneously to begin with.  These two lines slowly become out of phase when one of them speeds up slightly.  Reich initially had applied this technique to only recorded sounds but, after experimenting in the studio, found that humans could replicate the technique. 



The piece typically lasts fifteen to twenty minutes.  Reich adapted the piece later to be played by two marimbas one octave lower than the piano original.  One memorable recital of the Piano Phase was by a student Rob Kovacs where he gave the first solo performance of the piece by playing both piano parts at the same time on two different pianos.  This recital was in 2004 and Reich was in the audience for this performance.  




The Composition

The composition was created by first creating a sequence.  This was completed in Cubase using the MIDI sequencer.  The MIDI was then exported and re-imported into Logic Pro where the synth Massive was used to generate the sounds.  This was then exported as a wav file and re-imported into Cubase.  Sony Soundforge was used in order to change the timing of one of the lines.  This was then re-imported into Cubase.  The whole piece was then mixed and exported as a wav. The screen shot below shows the way the piece was arranged.

A third line to the composition was experimented with.  All three lines of music are the same and have the same instrument.  The piece can be listened to below.




Critical Analysis

The composition utilises the ideas Reich developed and sticks closely to the brief.  Unfortunately this causes the composition to be almost a re-hash of exactly what Reich did.  Perhaps with different instrumentation or a different line of music the piece would work a little better.  Despite this, the technique worked effectively in terms of the brief. The experimentation of introducing the third line of music was successful as each of the three lines are played at different speeds and this introduces even more movement and interesting patterns within the music.


References


Radio 3 Programmes – Composer of the Week, Steve Reich (b. 1936), Episode 1. BBC. October 25, 2010. from http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00vct73 [22.04.14]

Gann, Kyle (July 13, 1999). "Grand Old Youngster" The Village Voice. From http://www.villagevoice.com/1999-07-13/music/grand-old-youngster/ [22.04.14]

8- Vocals / Text

The Task

The Piece:

·         Choose a text.

·         Record it.

·         Spoken voice or sung; male or female.

·         Produce a piece using only the recorded text as your sonic material.

The Rules:

·         No samples.

·         The text must be intelligible.

·         The nature of the piece must reflect the meaning in the text.

Research

Karlheinz Stockhausen (22nd August 1928 - 5th December 2007) was a German Avant-Garde composer.  He's best known for his work in electronic, aleatoric and serial music, and musical spatialization.  He has been considered as

                perhaps the most influential voice of the post WWII European avant-garde.                                    (Stockhausen Resource Pack 2006)

He worked briefly at the Studio d'Essai with Pierre Schaeffer whilst he attended classes at the conservatory in Paris, but then moved to the WDR in Cologne studying Elektronische Musik instead of Musique Concrete.  He wrote 370 works in total.  He is best known for his works such as Helikopter-Streichquartett, Kontakte and Aphex Twin. 

Gesang Der Jünglinge literally translates as "song of the youths" and is an electronic work realised in 1955-56 whilst at the WDR in Cologne. It has been described as

                   the first masterpiece of electronic music (Simms 1986)

This piece is most important for its ability to flawlessly mix the human voice with electronic sounds by matching the resonances of the voice with pitch and producing sounds of phonemes electronically.  This marked the first time the two opposing schools of electronic music (the German Elektronische Musik and the French Musique Concrete) as it uses both recorded sounds and generated sounds. 

The thirteen minute long piece is for magnetic tape and five loudspeakers.  The text is drawn from the Bible's Book of Daniel and was performed by a boy soprano.  Its premiere was on 30th May 1956.

The Composition

The composition strives to show an element of the electronic usage of sound while also allowing the text to be heard comprehensibly.  The piece is based on the idea of time as a constraint and so the idea is to show a sense of repetition and monotony and that is why the clock ticking at the beginning seems so much louder than the speech.  The manipulated electronic sounds below are that of the background noise whilst on a train; the recording captured speech, the movements of the train and the environment.  All of the texts are related to time, many of which are poems.  The piece epitomises two key ideas. The first idea is that of the pinpointing of small sections of history.  The second is the idea of social challenges and acceptances.

Idea 1 – Social Challenges

The first voice represents one’s own voice.  The singular thought of one’s own expression.  It breaks through the background sounds which represent the environment and atmosphere around the speaker.  This voice speaks and then a second voice joins.  The second voice joining represents the beginning of the realisation that one is not alone in the thoughts and expression that they are giving.  As more speakers join, with international accents, it shows that there are people all over the world feeling the same way as the first speaker; a movement has begun.  Whatever thoughts the first speaker has, it’s repeated in the other speakers.  The repetition towards the end of the piece represents the ongoing repetition of these thoughts through many people at many different stages through time.  The speakers grow quiet as they adjust back to their surroundings and this is when the background sounds from the train can be heard again.  The final sound, one of the speakers saying “time”, shows that the repetitive loop of emotion is going to continue. 

Idea 2 – Pinpointing history

When creating the piece, this was the main idea in mind.  For this idea, the piece begins with someone (or something) looking at the earth and “tuning in” on a specific point in the history of the world.  These are the radio like sounds heard at the beginning.  The clock signifies the specific period they are searching for.  When they find their desired era, the first speaker begins talking; it’s as though they are zooming in on that specific time period. The first voice indicates the repetitive daily routine of the people on earth.  The second voice joins from a later time and also signifies the monotony of daily life.  The third voice is from a previous date, and shows the tedium of life then.  The next voice joins and has a different accent again, showing that someone from another part of the world shares in the same tedious routine.  As each voice joins from each time period and each part of the world, it signifies the same monotonous daily grind.  The repetitive “time” from 1 minute 37 seconds shows this monotony once again.  The piece ends with the onlookers “tuning out” of the earth.  The whole composition is to represent the monotony of daily life but also the tedious repetition of actions, not just one’s own actions around their own life, but the effects humans have on the world itself.  The idea that the world, through the cause of humans, repeats a cycle of a peace period, then a war, regardless of how small or large the war is, followed by a regeneration / clean up period then peace again.  Humans are monotonous and tedious by default and the same problems are ongoing with the world.

The piece was created by recording the texts for the piece.  After deciding on using time as the basis for the piece, the texts used include The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. Elliot, The Hand of Heaven by Francis Thompson and I had No Time to Hate by Emily Dickinson.  The texts were recorded through speakers using a field recorder and then input into Cubase for editing.  The singular instance of the word “time” were copied in order to create the end section.  The sounds from the train was manipulated in Cecilia and then reversed in Cubase.  The piece was arranged and then mixed and exported. 

Critical Analysis

The composition has good structure and is a good metaphor for life.  It stays within the brief and uses some elements Stockhausen used for Gesang Der Jünglinge in terms of the use of both comprehensible speech and ambiguous background sound.  The mix levels, while generally good, could have been cleaned up more in order to give more space to the individual voices.  

References


Stockhausen Resource Pack (2006) 'The Life and Work of Karlheinz stockhausen' from Soundscapes: Exploring Electronic Music and Karlheinz Stockhausen by London Sinfonietta.  Found here: http://www.londonsinfonietta.org.uk/sites/default/files/SOUNDSCAPES%20-%20Exploring%20electronic%20music%20and%20Karlheinz%20Stockhausen_1.pdf         [22.4.14]

Simms, Bryan R. (1986). Music of the Twentieth Century: Style and Structure. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-872580-8

7- Pseudo-Random Music

The Task

Use a random process as the core generative element of your composition, but organise the composition in such a way that it has development, an emergent musical structure.  In other words use a Cageian algorithm but without the piece begin a shapeless mess.


Research

John  Cage (5th September 1912 - 12th August 1992) was an American composer and music theorist.  He was part of the Avant-Garde movement and pioneered Electro-Acoustic music, Extended Technique and indeterminacy.  

For more information on Electroacoustic music please see post 5 - Pencil and paper

Extended Technique is used to describe methods of playing an instrument or singing in an unconventional way to create unusual sounds and textures.  Jazz has been influenced heavily by this technique.  One of the best examples of this is Cage's Prepared Piano.  Prepared Piano is where the sound can be altered by placing objects on the strings, string board of hammers of the piano.  Objects of certain textures, for example wood, have a definitive sound and when using wooden objects as part of a prepared piano gives a lovely warm percussive sound.  

Indeterminacy in music can mean different things.  It is generally meant to mean there is an element of chance that could change the composition and divided into three groups:

1) The chance element is involved in the compositional process (for example, creating a piece of music without listening to it)

2) The chance element is involved in the performance process (for example, giving a score of numbered musical phrases to the performers but telling them to play the phrases in the order they wish)

3) The chance element is involved in the interpretation of the music (for example, giving the performers a graphic score and allowing them to interpret it how they wish)

Pseudorandom is the term given to a process that appears to be random but ultimately is not. The idea of pseudorandomness is the same idea of Cage's indeterminacy- the outcome of the piece is not known.  

The Composition

In order to create the piece, several sound samples were chosen and renamed numerically so the sound source could not be known.  These singular sound files were imported into one of two programs to be manipulated according to whether the number was an odd or an even number.  The odd numbers were manipulated in Cecilia and the even numbers manipulated in Sound Grain.  These sound files (still using the numerical names) were then imported into Cubase at random.  The sounds were then listened back to discover whether they were good enough to be used.  Many of the sounds were able to be used and some of them were in a good place for the piece to become well-structured. The screenshot below shows the final arrangement of the sound objects.

Once the piece was arranged as desired, the entire track was mixed and exported to a .wav.





Critical Analysis

While the composition stays within the brief with the intentionality of being somewhat random, the piece lacks a definitive structure and, in the beginning, almost gives the sense of one of Schaeffer's Etudes due to its linear and a somewhat secular succession of sound objects.  That being said, around 1 minute 45 seconds, the piece begins to take some shape and develop into a more well-rounded composition.  The part following the silence gives an eerie and sinister feel to the piece due to the repeat of the scream like phrases and metallic sounds which seems to fit the piece well as it has an overall ominous feeling and contributes to the shape of the piece.


References 

http://www.plouffe.fr/simon/constants/feigenbaum.txt 

http://digitsofpi.com/Top-10000-Digits-Of-Pi.htm

http://apod.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/e.2mil

http://www.goldennumber.net/phi-million-places/

6- Graphic Scores

The Task

Compose a piece of music from the painting given.  Piece given: Richard Paul Lohse Progressive Reduktion


Research

Richard Paul Lohse (13th September 1902 - 16th September 1988) was a Swiss artist best know for his concrete art.  The art work to be used as a graphic score is Progressive Reduktion.  This piece was created in 1942 and gives a very secular, serial type image.  


Graphic Scores is a type of music notation outside the realm of classical scoring.  It uses symbols and graphics in order to convey the desired effect.  It evolved circa 1950's and is often used by experimental composers as sometimes classical scores can be ineffective.   Composers who are known to use them include Avant-Garde composers such as John Cage, Karlheinz Stockhausen and Gyorgy Ligeti.  

Graphic scores can include anything from  symbols, dots, lines, arrows, circles and many other patterns and shapes.  An example of this is Ligeti's Artikulation and Stockhausen's Helicopter String Quartet.
 [Ligeti's Artikulation]

[Stockhausen Helicopter String Quartet]

As the music became more and more experimental and so far away from the classical groundings it had come from, the musical notation style needed to emerge and develop just like the music.  This is why composers had a need for graphic scores.  How could one score the piece of musique concrete they had just created based on the sounds of metals being hit if they were confined to use classical notation?  It would be impossible.

                 Scores became more like maps of a sound world, charts for sonic navigation at a time when                    for a sizeable contingent of composers melody was not mentioned and tune a distinctly taboo                  word. (Phillips 2013)


The Composition

The idea behind the piece is the idea of the colours each having their own "theme" which lasts according to the amount of that specific colour in the artwork.  The colours look like they are dripping down the page and so the themes had to have the feeling of falling too.  The themes all have their own instrumentation to build a texture, while still being coherent, as the graphic has the sense of texture but coherence.

The "themes" were created in Cubase using the MIDI sampler.  Once these themes were created the MIDI was exported and imported into Logic Pro where the sounds were changed using the synthesizer Massive.  The whole piece was then mixed and exported.






Critical Analysis

While the sense of coherence and the idea of falling have been realised, the style of the composition doesn't seem to work with the graphic as much as anticipated.  Alternative ideas included a serial piece and a piece made using specific samples which corresponded to a certain colour which may have worked better in regards to the artwork.  Despite this, the choice of instrumentation gave the composition the overall feeling of belonging and space.

References

Phillips, T. (2013) 'Playing Pictures: the Wonder of Graphic Scores' from The Guardian in http://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/oct/07/graphic-music-scores-playing-pictures-tom-phillips [22.4.14]